70 Million Years of Primate Evolution

Many people take an understandably human-centered view of primate evolution, focusing on the bipedal, large-brained hominids that populated the jungles of Africa a few million years ago. But the fact is that primates as a whole — a category of megafauna mammals that includes not only humans and hominids, but monkeys, apes, lemurs, baboons, and tarsiers — have a deep evolutionary history that stretches as far back as the age of dinosaurs. The first mammal that paleontologists have identified as possessing primate-like characteristics was Purgatorius, a tiny, mouse-sized creature of the late Cretaceous period (just before the K/T Impact Event that rendered the dinosaurs extinct). Although it looked more like a tree shrew than a monkey or ape, Purgatorius had a very primate-like set of teeth, and it (or a close relative) may have spawned the more familiar primates of the Cenozoic Era. (Genetic sequencing studies suggest that the earliest primate ancestor may have lived a whopping 20 million years before Purgatorius, but as yet theres no fossil evidence for this mysterious beast.) Scientists have touted the equally mouse-like Archicebus, which lived 10 million years after Purgatorius, as the first true primate, and the anatomic evidence in support of this hypothesis is even stronger. Whats confusing about this is that the Asian Archicebus seems to have lived around the same time as the North American and Eurasian Plesiadapis, a much bigger, two-foot-long, tree-dwelling, lemur-like primate with a rodent-like head. The teeth of Plesiadapis displayed the early adaptations necessary for an omnivorous diet — a key trait that allowed its descendants tens of millions of years down the line to diversify away from trees and toward the open grasslands. Primate Evolution During the Eocene Epoch During the Eocene epoch — from about 55 million to 35 million years ago — small, lemur-like primates haunted woodlands the world over, though the fossil evidence is frustratingly sparse. The most important of these creatures was Notharctus, which had a telling mix of simian traits: a flat face with forward-facing eyes, flexible hands that could grasp branches, a sinuous backbone, and (perhaps most important) a bigger brain, proportionate to its size than can be seen in any previous vertebrate. Interestingly, Notharctus was the last primate ever to be indigenous to North America; it probably descended from ancestors that crossed the land bridge from Asia at the end of the Paleocene. Similar to Notharctus was the western European Darwinius, the subject of a big public relations blitz a few years back touting it as the earliest human ancestor; not many experts are convinced. Another important Eocene primate was the Asian Eosimias (dawn monkey), which was considerably smaller than both Notharctus and Darwinius, only a few inches from head to tail and weighing one or two ounces, max. The nocturnal, tree-dwelling Eosimias — which was about the size of your average Mesozoic mammal — has been posited by some experts as proof that monkeys originated in Asia rather than Africa, though this is far from a widely accepted conclusion. The Eocene also witnessed the North American Smilodectes and the amusingly named Necrolemur from western Europe, early, pint-sized monkey ancestors that were distantly related to modern lemurs and tarsiers. A Brief Digression: The Lemurs of Madagascar Speaking of lemurs, no account of primate evolution would be complete without a description of the rich variety of prehistoric lemurs that once inhabited the Indian Ocean island of Madagascar, off the east African coast. The fourth-largest island in the world, after Greenland, New Guinea, and Borneo, Madagascar split off from the African mainland about 160 million years ago, during the late Jurassic period, and then from the Indian subcontinent anywhere from 100 to 80 million years ago, during the middle to late Cretaceous period. What this means, of course, is that its virtually impossible for any Mesozoic primates to have evolved on Madagascar before these big splits — so where did all those lemurs come from? The answer, as far as paleontologists can tell, is that some lucky Paleocene or Eocene primates managed to float to Madagascar from the African coast on tangled thatches of driftwood, a 200-mile journey that could conceivably have been accomplished in a matter of days. Crucially, the only primates to successfully make this trip happened to be lemurs and not other types of monkeys — and once ensconced on their enormous island, these tiny progenitors were free to evolve into a wide variety of ecological niches over the ensuing tens of millions of years (even today, the only place on earth you can find lemurs is Madagascar; these primates perished millions of years ago in North America, Eurasia, and even Africa). Given their relative isolation, and the lack of effective predators, the prehistoric lemurs of Madagascar was free to evolve in some weird directions. The Pleistocene epoch witnessed plus-sized lemurs like Archaeoindris, which was about the size of a modern gorilla, and the smaller Megaladapis, which only weighed 100 pounds or so. Entirely different (but of course closely related) were the so-called sloth lemurs, primates like Babakotia and Palaeopropithecus that looked and behaved like sloths, lazily climbing trees and sleeping upside-down from branches. Sadly, most of these slow, trusting, dim-witted lemurs were doomed to extinction when the first human settlers arrived on Madagascar about 2,000 years ago. Old World Monkeys, New World Monkeys, and the First Apes Often used interchangeably with primate and monkey, the word simian derives from Simiiformes, the infraorder of mammals that includes both old world (i.e., African and Eurasian) monkeys and apes and new world (i.e., central and South American) monkeys; the small primates and lemurs described on page 1 of this article are usually referred to as prosimians. If all this sounds confusing, the important thing to remember is that new world monkeys split off from the main branch of simian evolution about 40 million years ago, during the Eocene epoch, while the split between old world monkeys and apes occurred about 25 million years later. The fossil evidence for new world monkeys is surprisingly slim; to date, the earliest genus yet identified is Branisella, which lived in South America between 30 and 25 million years ago. Typically for a new world monkey, Branisella was relatively small, with a flat nose and a prehensile tail (oddly enough, old world monkeys never managed to evolve these grasping, flexible appendages). How did Branisella and its fellow new world monkeys make it all the way from Africa to South America? Well, the stretch of Atlantic Ocean separating these two continents was about one-third shorter 40 million years ago than it is today, so its conceivable that some small old world monkeys made the trip accidentally, on floating thatches of driftwood. Fairly or unfairly, old world monkeys are often considered significant only insofar as they eventually spawned apes, and then hominids, and then humans. A good candidate for an intermediate form between old-world monkeys and old-world apes was Mesopithecus, a macaque-like primate that, like apes, foraged for leaves and fruits during the day. Another possible transitional form was Oreopithecus (called the cookie monster by paleontologists), an island-dwelling European primate that possessed a strange mix of monkey-like and ape-like characteristics but (according to most classification schemes) stopped short of being a true hominid. The Evolution of Apes and Hominids During the Miocene Epoch Heres where the story gets a bit confusing. During the Miocene epoch, from 23 to 5 million years ago, a bewildering assortment of apes and hominids inhabited the jungles of Africa and Eurasia (apes are distinguished from monkeys mostly by their lack of tails and stronger arms and shoulders, and hominids are distinguished from apes mostly by their upright postures and bigger brains). The most important non-hominid African ape was Pliopithecus, which may have been ancestral to modern gibbons; an even earlier primate, Propliopithecus, seems to have been ancestral to Pliopithecus. As their non-hominid status implies, Pliopithecus and related apes (such as Proconsul) werent directly ancestral to humans; for example, none of these primates walked on two feet. Ape (but not hominid) evolution really hit its stride during the later Miocene, with the tree-dwelling Dryopithecus, the enormous Gigantopithecus (which was about twice the size of a modern gorilla), and the nimble Sivapithecus, which is now considered to be the same genus as Ramapithecus (it turns out that smaller Ramapithecus fossils were probably Sivapithecus females!) Sivapithecus is especially important because this was one of the first apes to venture down from the trees and out onto the African grasslands, a crucial evolutionary transition that may have been spurred by climate change. Paleontologists disagree about the details, but the first true hominid appears to have been Ardipithecus, which walked (if only clumsily and occasionally) on two feet but only had a chimp-sized brain; even more tantalizingly, there doesnt seem to have been much sexual differentiation between Ardipithecus males and females, which makes this genus unnervingly similar to humans. A few million years after Ardipithecus came the first indisputable hominids: Australopithecus (represented by the famous fossil Lucy), which was only about four or five feet tall but walked on two legs and had an unusually large brain, and Paranthropus, which was once considered to be a species of Australopithecus but has since earned its own genus thanks to its unusually large, muscular head and correspondingly larger brain. Both Australopithecus and Paranthropus lived in Africa until the start of the Pleistocene epoch; paleontologists believe that a population of Australopithecus was the immediate progenitor of genus Homo, the line that eventually evolved (by the end of the Pleistocene) into our own species, Homo sapiens.

Essay on The Concept of Community - 3176 Words

THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNITY IS PROBLEMATIC. COMMENT ON YOUTH, CULTURE AND POSTCODE RIVALRY IN INNER CITY LONDON Community has been described and interpreted in different ways. It has been explained by different people in their own understanding and views. The concept of community could be associated with the beliefs, culture and interests. In this essay, the concept of community, what it is and the different types of community will be discussed. Also, the association between community, youth and its influence on the environment will be acknowledged. In addition, in this essay, issues on ethnicity, culture, youth, racism and crime will be discussed. The question ‘what a community is’ will be addressed. The concept of community has been†¦show more content†¦In a society, he shares the spirit of solidarity, togetherness and social cohesion within the society. Despite living under a locality, an individual often belong to other communities outside his or her geographical domain. On occasions, people discover that they belong to diverse groups with special interests that make them members to these communities. There are instances when a group of people who live in different land space or geographical zone. On occasions, there have been people with a collective voice in different mapped out areas of the world. This may be as a result of migration. An example is when an Asian couple migrates from their birth place in Bombay, India and decides to settle in the United Kingdom. When the family broadens with children, it encourages diversity of society in life of the younger generation. Language, food, religion and other beliefs in India are introduced to the children, even though they reside in the United Kingdom. Tyler (2003) explains that there are more to the buildings and accommodation of the society make up the society. He goes on to explai n the idea that it is a notable fact that relationships are developed among the local group. 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Ethical Issues with Project Prevention - 3325 Words

Project Prevention Offers Sterilisation To The Drug Addicts International Corporate Responsibility November 26, 2010 http://www.projectprevention.org/objectives/ Charity offers UK drug addicts  £200 to be sterilised. Drug addicts across the UK are being offered money to be sterilised by Project Prevention-an American charity. Charity is offering  £200 to any drug user in London, Bristol, Leicester and parts of Wales to be operated on. The first person in the UK to accept the cash is drug addict John from Leicester who says he should never be a father. The move has been criticised by some drug charities that work with addicts. Project Prevention founder Barbara Harris admitted her methods amounted to be ‘bribery’, saying that it†¦show more content†¦This charity wants to reduce the burden of this social problem on taxpayers and trim down social worker caseloads. The charity does not have the resources to combat the national problems of poverty, housing, education, and rehabilitation services. Resources charity does have are spent to prevent a problem for $300 rather than paying millions after it happens in cost to care for a potentially damaged child (â€Å"Project prevent ion†, 2010). Project Prevention is the charity organization that means a non-profit organization. Its main objective is to make general public aware of the problem of drug addicts exposing to their unborn child to drugs during pregnancy. The founder Barbara Harris has a personal experience how the drug causes the problems. This was the only reason this charity was born. Mrs. Harris has a good intention behind her act. $11.4 billion was spent by US government in 1994 just after the rehabilitation for the addicts and make them drug free but no sufficient result was achieved. She has already paid 3500 addicts across the US not to have children. 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Impact Of Leadership Quality At Kfc Essay Example For Students

Impact Of Leadership Quality At Kfc Essay Employees ne’er work along in the organisations, there must be some sort of teamwork involve in the on the job procedure, both formal and informal. Leadership Acts of the Apostless as an of import factor that strongly influences employee ‘s public presentation, motive and attitude. It has been argued that differences between success and failure, whether in concern, war or football, leading is mostly attributable to success. 1.1 Definition Of Literature Review A literature reappraisal is defined as mark to demo of import facts sing attacks on a subject in the methodological method. It besides means they are non primary beginnings because it is non original or new work. 1.2 Definition Of Leadership Leadership is become really much on every director ‘s head today in organisations. Origins are fighting due to the progressively dynamic environment. As the challenges of taking and pull offing addition, leaders of organisations need to understand procedure, accomplishments and cognition to execute leader maps efficaciously. 1.3 Definition Of Motivation Motivation is â€Å" the willingness to exercise high degrees of attempt to make organisational ends, conditioned by the attempt ‘s ability to fulfill some single demand † ( Belasen A ; Frank, 2008 ) . Motivating employees are one of the continual challenges of managerial behavior, that are besides directors ‘ cardinal grounds for prosecuting in assorted activities and work. 1.4 Introduction Of KFC Kentucky Fried Chicken ( KFC ) , as we all know – is one of the popular fast nutrient mercantile establishments worldwide with the subject â€Å" It ‘s finger lickin ‘ good † . The first KFC mercantile establishment in Malaysia was opened on 1st January 1973 at Jalan Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kuala Lumpur. Today there are more than 390 KFC mercantile establishments countrywide and are still numbering. Great savoring poulet has become synonymous with KFC and has been enjoyed by Malaysians of all time since. The KFC we will be speaking about is in Nilai, Negeri Sembilan. 2.0 Literature Review 2.1 Specifying Leadership Leadership can be defined as â€Å" the procedure whereby one single influence other group members towards achieving defined group or organisational ends † ( Orlando, 2008 ) . More of import, successful organisations need effectual leading, who are capable of increasing an organisation ‘s employee motive ; in bend improve the overall public presentation and organisational productiveness ( Richard, 2007 ) . In add-on, Drucker in his â€Å" The Leader of the Future † sums up leading as â€Å" The lone definition of a leader is person who has followings. † It is said that many of the universe ‘s best leaders do non hold the unity every bit good as certain values which wo n’t be discussed in the modern yearss. In my sentiment, leading is different from direction. Directors have subsidiaries which are below them while leaders have people who follow them. Directors will usually use their place of power in order to make things. In the procedure of work, directors orders his or her employees while they will follow because of the wages given which is the lower limit of their wage. Looking at the other manner unit of ammunition, leaders gives up their autocratic control, due to their followings which follows them in a voluntary manner. 2.2 Leadership Theories Terry ( 2000 ) has highlighted that â€Å" leading is an influence relationship between leaders and followings who intend existent alterations and results that reflect their shared intents. † Block ( 2002 ) has noted that as a procedure, leading is, ideally the usage of non-coercive influence to determine the group ‘s or organisation ‘s ends, motivate behavior towards the accomplishment of those ends and assist specify group or organisational civilization. Effective Leadership Russell, ( 2000 ) defined effectual leader as those leaders who are able to better organisation productivenesss, in bend develop typical competitory advantages for organisations. In other words, effectual leaders normally have an inspiring vision ; they will seek to organize a group of people to work as a squad, doing them into a powerful squad which utilizes as a competitory advantage. Effective leaders know how to do people function harmonizing to what they are good at, and how to actuate them to stand out their public presentation. Leaderships need to understand the balance technique in any single squad member ‘s quest with the aim of making synergism. Leaderships need his or her members in their squad to predate the end for the single best coherent with the attempt of the whole squad. 2.3 Leadership Style Autocratic vs. Democratic vs. Laissez-faire leading manner Taggart ( 1989 ) defined that, wide categorization of leading manner consists of autocratic ( or bossy ) manner, democratic manner and laissez-faire ( echt ) manner. The definition of bossy manner is: Romulus And Remus Essay PaperTherefore, effectual leaders must set the leading manner to assorted state of affairss. In that sense, there is no 1 leading manner is appropriate for every juncture or state of affairs. The most effectual manner to utilize depends upon the state of affairs and whether the group members are willing and able to take on the duty. To be effectual as a leader, it ‘s of import to cognize your group in footings of cognition, ability, desire and willingness, and be ready to accommodate your manner to accommodate the dynamic environment. An of import undertaking in the coming old ages will be the preparation and testing of future leaders. Further more, organisations have to hold a bigger image of long term success, that is beef uping leading competences will better organisational effectivity. When subsidiaries trusted their leaders ‘ leading, and they deem it is just for them to obtain satisfactory wagess and results when they made the greatest attempts. Therefore, effectual leading lead to a positive motive and motivated employees will fulfill the clients of the organisations. In a long-run, it will assist organisation making or keeping a sustainable organisational competitory advantage. Mentions Svensson, G A ; Wood, G. ( 2007 ) . Sustainable leading moralss: a uninterrupted and iterative procedure. Retrieved on March 10, 2010, from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=ArticleHYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=Article A ; Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220280304.html † amp ; HYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=Article A ; Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220280304.html † Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220280304.html Belasen, A A ; Frank, N. ( 2008 ) . Competing values leading: quadrant functions and personality traits. Retrieved on March 10, 2010, from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=ArticleHYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=Article A ; Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220290202.html † amp ; HYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=Article A ; Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220290202.html † Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220290202.html Hay, A A ; Hodgkinson, M. ( 2006 ) . Rethinking leading: a manner forward for learning leading? Retrieved on March 10, 2010, from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=ArticleHYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=Article A ; Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220270205.html † amp ; HYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=Article A ; Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220270205.html † Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220270205.html Orlando J. ( 2008 ) . The preparation of a leading development practice: linking purposes to results. Retrieved on March 10, 2010, from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=ArticleHYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=Article A ; Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220290604.html † amp ; HYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=Article A ; Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220290604.html † Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220290604.html Bartram, T A ; Casimir, G. ( 2007 ) . The relationship between leading and follower in-role public presentation and satisfaction with the leader. Retrieved on March 10, 2010, from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=ArticleHYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=Article A ; Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220280101.html † amp ; HYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=Article A ; Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220280101.html † Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220280101.html Richard K. ( 2007 ) . A strategic attack for incorporating theory to pattern in leading development. Retrieved on March 10, 2010, from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=ArticleHYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=Article A ; Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220280503.html † amp ; HYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet? contentType=Article A ; Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220280503.html † Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0220280503.html Leskiw, S.L A ; Singh, P. ( 2007 ) . Leadership development: acquisition from best patterns. 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